Indian Air Force

Indian Air Force
The Indian Air Force (IAF; Devanāgarī: Bhartiya Vāyu Senā) is the air arm of the armed forces of India. Its primary responsibility is to secure and preserve peace whithin Indian airspace, and to conduct aerial warfare during a conflict. The Indian Air Force was officially established on October 8, 1932 as an auxiliary air force of the Indian Empire. In 1945, King George VI conferred the prefix Royal in recognition of its services during the World War II. After India achieved its independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, the Royal Indian Air Force served the Union of India and after India became a republic in 1950, the prefix was dropped.

Since independence the Air Force had been involved in several conflicts with neighbouring Pakistan and in 1962 with China. In 1961, the IAF played a crucial role during liberation of Goa and in 1971, during the Bangladesh liberation war. Apart from combat operations during war, the IAF is often called upon during natural disasters to provide relief to victims.

The President of India is Commander in Chief of the Air Force. Chief of the air staff, an Air Chief Marshal, is the commander of the Air Force. In 2002, for his service during the 1965 Indo-Pakistan war as Air Chief Marshal, Arjan Singh was given the honorary rank of Marshal of the Air Force. Officers holding this rank never retires and is the ceremonial chief of the Airforce. Approximately 170,000 men and women serve in the Air Force and with over 1,500 aircraft in active service, it is the world's fourth largest. Other than the officers and airmen, the IAF employs a large number of non-combat and civilian personnel for day to day affairs.

Large number of aircraft in the Air Force's inventory are aging Soviet era MiGs and due to their ongoing decomissioning, the IAF fleet is shrinking. Therefore, in recent years, the IAF has undertaken an ambitious expansion and modernization program. With lengthy delays in the development of an indigenous replacement fighter, Indian launched the Multi-Role Combat Aircraft (MRCA) program. Under this program the IAF plans to induct 126 fighter jets at a cost of US$12 billion. India is increasingly projecting its power beyond South Asia. To assist its foreign policy, Government of India has authorized to increase the force level from 39.5 squadrons in present to 42 squadrons in 2022

Indian Navy

The Indian Navy (Bhartiya Nāu Senā) is the naval branch of the armed forces of India. It currently has approximately 55,000 personnel on active duty, including 5,000 members of the naval aviation branch and 2,000 marine commandos, making it the world's fifth largest navy.The Indian Navy currently operates more than 155 vessels, including the INS Viraat, the only full-deck aircraft carrier operated by a country in Asia or the Western Pacific, along with operational jet fighters.
Though the primary objective of the navy is to secure national maritime borders, India also uses its navy to enhance its international relations through joint exercises, port visits and humanitarian missions, including disaster relief. In recent years, the Indian Navy has undergone extensive modernization and expansion with an intention to increase its capabilities as a recognized blue-water navy. By 2020, the Navy is expected to operate three aircraft carriers and three nuclear submarines.

Indian Army

The Indian Army (Bharatiya Thalsena) is the largest branch of the armed forces of India and has the responsibility for land-based military operations. Its primary objectives include defending India from external aggression, maintaining peace and security within the country, patrolling borders and conducting counter-terrorist operations. It also conducts rescue and humanitarian operations during calamities and disturbances. The President of India is the Commander in Chief of the Indian Army.
With more than 1,130,000 soldiers in active service[1] and about 1,800,000 reserve troops, the Indian Army is the world's second largest.[2] It is a completely voluntary service and though there is a provision for military draft in the Indian constitution, it has never been imposed.
The Indian Army was formed soon after India gained independence in 1947 and retained most of the regiments of the British Indian Army. The Army is deployed in many of the world's conflict zones as a part of the United Nations Peacekeeping forces. The force is currently headed by the Chief of Army Staff, General Deepak Kapoor. The Field Marshal is the highest attainable rank in the Indian Army and it is awarded by the President of India, on advise of the Union Government, only in exceptional circumstances. So far, only two officers have attained this rank.

Indian Airlines

Indian Airlines is an airline based in Delhi, India and focuses primarily on domestic routes, along with several international services to neighbouring countries in Asia. Indian Airlines is state-owned, and is administered by the Ministry of Civil Aviation. Its main bases are Delhi's Indira Gandhi International Airport, Mumbai's Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, Chennai International Airport and Kolkata's Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport[1].
Though the company that owns and operates the airline continues to be named Indian Airlines Limited, on 7 December 2005, the airline was rebranded as Indian for advertising purposes as a part of a program to revamp its image in preparation for an initial public offering (IPO).[2] The airline operates closely with Air India, India's national carrier. Alliance Air, a fully-owned subsidiary of Indian Airlines, was renamed Air India Regional.[3]
In February 2007, the Government of India approved plans to merge Indian Airlines with Air India. The merger process is currently underway.

Services
Indian serves its customers through inbound call centres based at Delhi and outbound call centers at major metropolitan areas. Accessible through a toll free number from all parts of the country, arrival-departure information, reservations, promotional schemes, telephone check-in and booking (Dial-a-Ticket) are a few of the services rendered to fliers and travel agents.

Indian Railway

Indian Railways, abbreviated as IR, is the state-owned railway company of India, which owns and operates most of the country's rail transport. It is overseen by the Ministry of Railways of the Government of India.
Indian Railways has one of the largest and busiest rail networks in the world, transporting over 18 million passengers and more than 2 million tonnes of freight daily.[3][4] It is the world's largest commercial or utility employer, with more than 1.4 million employees.[5][3] The railways traverse the length and breadth of the country, covering 6,909 stations over a total route length of more than 63,327 kilometres (39,350 mi). As to rolling stock, IR owns over 200,000 (freight) wagons, 50,000 coaches and 8,000 locomotives.[3]
Railways were first introduced to India in 1853. By 1947, the year of India's independence, there were forty-two rail systems. In 1951 the systems were nationalised as one unit, becoming one of the largest networks in the world. IR operates both long distance and suburban rail systems on a multi-gauge network of broad, metre and narrow gauges. It also owns locomotive and coach production facilities.

Marriage in India

Arranged marriages have been the tradition in Indian society for centuries. Even today an overwhelming majority of Indians in India have their marriages planned by their parents and other respected family-members, without the consent of the bride and groom [1]. Arranged matches were made after taking into account factors such as age, height, personal values and tastes, the backgrounds of their families (wealth, social standing) and their castes and the astrological compatibility of the couples' horoscopes.

The institution of marriage in India is considered a very important one. In general both the parents and the young people feel that since they were older and wiser than their progeny, they would be able to find a suitable match for their children with more prudence than the latter. Although most marriages are arranged, some couples in India are opting for love marriage in urban areas. Among the overseas Indians, many marriages are still arranged with the assistance of the parents[2]. Even the so called love marriages in India generally happen with the approval of the parents, although their blessing may sometimes be reluctant.

In India, the marriage is thought to be for life[3], and the divorce rate is extremely low, 1.1 compared with over 20% for USA. Still, many women and men are beat or emotionally hurt, but stay together for social standings[4]. The arranged marriages generally have a much lower divorce rate[citation needed]. The divorce rates have risen significantly in recent years:

"Opinion is divided over what the phenomenon means: for traditionalists the rising numbers portend the breakdown of society while, for some modernists, they speak of a healthy new empowerment for women."[5]

Online Banking in India

Online banking systems in India and the features available with different banks across India. If you look into the modern age of banking , online banks or net banking made things much easier for the people and saves lot of time. The traditional way of standing in the queue and filling up all the forms, now its no hassle for making any transaction with the banks. Every bank has their own features and some banks still not having the more advanced features like transferring money to any banks across India, easy registration for net banking, etc. This article will explore the features with different banks and coming with the series of articles. This is part 1 in the series of article about the Online Banking in India. I would like to hear feedback from the user and your experience on online banking in your bank account. Please post it in the comments section. You can subscribe to our future articles here.

Advantage of Internet Banking Facility

Advantages previously held by large financial institutions have shrunk considerably. The Internet has leveled the playing field and afforded open access to customers in the global marketplace. Internet banking is a cost-effective delivery channel for financial institutions. Consumers are embracing the many benefits of Internet banking. Access to one’s accounts at anytime and from any location via the World Wide Web is a convenience unknown a short time ago. Thus, a bank’s Internet presence transforms from ‘brouchreware’ status to ‘Internet banking’ status once the bank goes through a technology integration effort to enable the customer to access information about his or her specific account relationship. The six primary drivers of Internet banking includes, in order of primacy are:

Improve customer access
Facilitate the offering of more services
Increase customer loyalty
Attract new customers
Provide services offered by competitors
Reduce customer attrition
Banks with Internet Banking
In the current scenario, every bank in India has the internet banking facility. Recently the banks are extending their presence in rural areas to lure more customers and show them the advantages of internet making by educating into the new system. This gives the countries entire population to get the benefit of technology advancement. As I said, still it is evolving and not all the banks provide very advanced features. In our article I will take few leading banks and explain the features they are offering. Note that, the online banking can be for managing your Savings Accounts, Credit Cards, Fixed Deposit, Insurance, etc. The following are the list of banks and their online website address.
ICICI Net Banking
HDFC Net Banking
SBI Cards
LIC India
CitiBank Login
Summary
This article presents only the basic idea on internet banking in India. Also the leading internet banking portals mostly used by the customers. When it comes to the internet banking, internet security on net banking is the challenging problem to be faced by all the major portals. Every customer must aware of the security issues and protect their details from the hackers. In my next article I will be writing about the security issues which normally cheat customers and steal the personal details. Thank you for reading this article.

Indian food

Food, glorious food...The way to a man's heart is through his stomach...An army marches on its stomach....and so many other cliches that all centre around one of life's necessities - eating. Without exception we aim to ensnure you into a truly unique, unforgettable cuisine experience. We combine the ancient with the modern and take you down the path to losing yourself in the exotic flavours of INDIA.

Non Vegetarian Food
The non-vegetarian side of Indian cuisines comprises of many juicy, tender, mouth watering delicacies made with eggs, chicken, fish and more....
Vegetarian Food
Vegetables are an integral part of our food and we consume them in a number of ways. For pure vegetarians India is a heaven. Some of the famous recepies are Navratan Korma, Shahi Paneer and more....
Indian Breads
In India, bread is eaten more in the northern regions of the country because of its dry climate.There are a variety of breads consumed in India like roomali roti, naan , aloo paratha and more....

Tandoori Chicken

There are only three secrets to cooking good Tandoori meats, including chicken. The first is the use of the special clay Tandoor oven, which not many people have in their homes. The second is the special Tandoori coloring, a rich red color imparted to the meat. But for me, the third secret
is the most important to learn is the special yogurt marinade used to flavor the meat. Here are the ingredients and method to create delicious Tandoori Chicken at home
For the Tandoor oven, we can substitute
the barbeque grill or the oven. For the
coloring, you may be able to find special
Tandoori food coloring at a local Indian
grocery store or online. Or you can try
substituting a combination of red and
orange/yellow food coloring until you get
the color you want. Many Tandoori
recipes call for meat tenderizer but I omit
this. I was never able to control its use;
most of the time it would over tenderize
and make the surface (only) of the
chicken mushy. Its omission has no
downside in my opinion since if you cook
the chicken correctly it will be very
tender. There is no substitute for the
marinade which is described below….
Ingredients:



The Chicken:
3-4 pounds (approx) chicken pieces, bone-in. Alternatively, use boneless skinless chicken
breasts cubed for kabobs



For the marinade:
¼ cup fresh lemon juice
2 large fresh garlic cloves, peeled and chopped fine
1 tablespoon fresh ginger root, peeled and chopped fine
1 teaspoon ground cumin
½ teaspoon ground cardamom
½ teaspoon ground red chili pepper
1 teaspoon tandoori coloring, or substitute paprika
1/3 cup plain yogurt



Combine well all the ingredients for the marinade and let stand for a few minutes for the

flavors to combine. Be careful with the food coloring since it can stain your fingers.


Remove the skin from the chicken pieces. For a traditional Indian look, slash each piece 2

4 times with a knife to create just ¼ to ½ inch deep slashes. This will give a traditional look plus
allow the marinade to contact more of the chicken.


Add the chicken to the marinade and coat all the pieces. You need to let the chicken

marinate for at least a couple of hours in the refrigerator. It’s ok to let it marinate all day or
overnight. Be sure to stir the chicken a couple of times during this time.


After just a couple of hours, the chicken is ready to cook. You can use a regular oven to

roast the chicken in a 350 degree oven for 35-45 minutes or until it is just cooked through. It is
very important not to overcook chicken because it gets dry and tough very soon after it is cooked
through. Alternatively, you can grill this chicken on a barbeque grill, basting once or twice with a
light cooking oil like canola oil.
All cooking times are estimations because your oven and barbeque may be much hotter or colder than mine. Please take care to cook the chicken thoroughly, but not so much as to dry it
out.
If by chance (not likely!) you do not finish all your Tandoori Chicken you can use the
leftovers in a Butter Chicken recipe.
Enjoy!

Indian Wars

Indian Wars
Since the first encounters, Indian-white relations have been largely characterized by hostility and violence, causing the term "Indian wars" to gain wide currency. The Indian Wars were a result of a clash of cultures that led to many short, bloody battles. There were rare stories of unprovoked American Indian attacks on innocent families that brought about outrage by the rest of the country. These violent acts led to the United States military retaliating against the tribe responsible.
"There is not a tribe of Indians on the Great plains or in the Mountains...but which is warring on the whites. The first demand of the Indian is that the white man shall not come into his country: shall not kill or drive off the game upon which his subsistence depends: and shall not disposses him of his lands." The mass migration of Euro-Americans into the west was monitored by soldiers who prevented squatters from encroaching upon American Indian land. As the overlanders were migrating west they cut a path that divided the great buffalo herds of the Plains. The buffalo was the life source for the Plains Indians and their hunting of these animals became disrupted. The tribes may have been helpful initially to the overlanders but hospitable feelings turned to resentment as their way of life began to decline.
The government began establishing treaties with the American Indians and giving them rations of food, clothing and farm implements to allow the pioneers to continue to pass through their territory. At first the tribes were cooperative. In the Pacific Northwest the military was called in to provide a buffer between the settlers and the American Indians. By the 1860s, mounting pressure sparked battles on the Plains. The sentiment of many whites was stated by Philip Sheridan when he said that, "The only good Indian is a dead Indian."
The American Indians' land was taken from them, they were forced to live on reservations and they did not have the manpower to fight back. Many reservations were on worthless land. They could not farm or raise stock on much of the land. Most devastating for their culture was the lack of hunting on the reservations.
By the time of the Civil War, the flow of emigrants slowed, but revived afterward with the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869. As American Indians were forced to live on reservations, the need for soldiers dwindled, and slowly the forts closed.
By the late 1860'S the government's policy of removing Indians from desirable areas (graphically represented by the transfer of the Five Civilized Tribes from the Southeast to Oklahoma—the Cherokees called it the "Trail of Tears") had run its course and was succeeded by one of concentrating them on reservations. The practice of locating tribes in other than native or salubrious surroundings and of joining uncongenial bands led to more than one Indian war. Some bands found it convenient to accept reservation status and government rations during the winter months, returning to the warpath and hunting trail in the milder seasons. Many bands of many tribes refused to accept the treaties offered by a peace commission and resisted the government's attempt to confine them to specific geographical limits; it fell to the Army to force compliance. In his area, General Sheridan now planned to hit the Indians in their permanent winter camps.
While a winter campaign presented serious logistical problems, it offered opportunities for decisive results. If the Indians' shelter, food, and livestock could be destroyed or captured, not only the warriors but their women and children were at the mercy of the Army and the elements, and there was little left but surrender. Here was the technique of total war, a practice that raised certain moral questions for many officers and men that were never satisfactorily resolved.
The Indian Wars of the 1870's-1890's saw the Army involved in a long series of engagements. These wars often consisted of numerous scattered skirmishes over wide areas, without any substantial battle being fought to determine the war's end. This type of war led to the further enhancement of the Noncommissioned Officer's [NCO's] role as small unit leader. Often fighting in small detachments, troops relied heavily on the knowledge and abilities of NCOs.
The Army during the Indian wars was habitually unable to balance resources with requirements, both because of limited manpower and because of the continental size of the theater of operations. As Lt. Gen. William T. Sherman, commanding the Division of the Missouri, put it, "Were I or the department commanders to send guards to every point where they are clamored for, we would need alone on the plains a hundred thousand men, mostly of cavalry. Each spot of every road, and each little settlement along five thousand miles of frontier, wants its regiment of cavalry or infantry to protect it against the combined power of all the Indians, because of the bare possibility of their being attacked by the combined force of all the Indians."
During the Indian Wars period, enlisted men lived in Spartan barracks, with corporals and privates in one large room. Sergeants were separated from their men, in small cubicles of their own adjacent to the men's sleeping quarters. This gave enlisted men a sense of comradeship, but allowed little privacy.
Black soldiers of this period were often referred to as Buffalo Soldiers. The units they served in were the 9th and 10th Cavalry and the 24th and 25th Infantry. These troops provided 20 years of continuous frontier service. They campaigned in the Southern Plains, in West Texas, in the Apache lands, and against the Sioux.
The soldier of this period spent much of his time engaged in manual labor. Soldiers in the west were called upon to build or repair housing and fortifications, repair roads and bridges, serve as blacksmiths or bakers, perform guard duty, and other tasks. It was a hard life, pay was poor, and desertion was common. NCOs were fully tested in their abilities to maintain effective fighting units.
During the 1870's the Army discouraged enlisted men from marrying. Regulations limited the number of married enlisted men in the Army and required special permission to be obtained if a man in the Army wished to marry. Those men who did marry without permission could be charged with insubordination. They could not live in post housing or receive other entitlements. Still, nature proved stronger than Army desires or regulations. Marriages occurred and posts were transformed into communities.
Married NCO wives had a hard life, often working as laundresses or maids. Their meals consisted of beans, bacon, beef and hardtack, with eggs, sugar and other staples being too high-priced for their budgets. Many lived in dugouts, sod huts or adobe buildings. The luckier wives lived in wooden structures or stone buildings.
The earliest settlements of westward expansion were the forts. They were centers of trade and commerce and brought growth, stability, and trade. The soldiers helped to build roads and later string telegraph lines.
A soldier's life was not glamorous, perhaps a fact learned too late after men enlisted. Some men romanticized the life while others wished to escape from a lackluster career or an unhappy home life. Other soldiers came to the West from the Civil War battlefields. Many were recent European immigrants,and after the Civil War, former slaves. A soldier's life would entail wearing wool uniforms and living in crowded, unsanitary barracks. Often the men had only beef, beans, stew, or bacon to eat. They averaged around $13.00 per month in wages.
In Canada the Royal Mounted Police (established in 1874) were empowered to treat with the Indians--and then back the treaties against the encroachments of settlers. As a result Canada did not suffer the Indian wars that plagued her southern neighbor. While the several thousand soldiers of the US Army struggled to preserve peace on the American frontier, no more than 300 Northwest Mounties were sufficient to do the same in Canada's West, even after the settlers came.
The end of the 1800s brought tremendous change to the Indian Nations within the United States. It marked the end of the Indian wars and the beginning of the Reservation period in American history. A large number of culturally diverse tribes from the various regions of the United States were relocated to "Indian Territory." This region was to become the state of Oklahoma. This large concentration of Indian populations within Oklahoma made the state one of the main centers for growth and development of American Indian arts and crafts. Historically, the Southwest and California were also regions that had equally large populations of Indian people. Today these three areas are the leaders in the promotion and appreciation of Native art.
The late 1930s and early 1940s marked a change in direction in Indian education. Two official special art programs, one at the University of Oklahoma and one at the Santa Fe Indian School were developed to encourage and nurture the growth of Indian painting as well as the traditional arts. Out of these programs, the leaders in the Native American Fine Art Movement emerged. The late 1930s and early 1940s also saw a growing interest by collectors and promoters of Indian art in the small wood carvings being produced by Native artists.
The Indian Claims Commission was established in 1946 to settle any outstanding claims any Native American tribe might have against the federal government. Claims for unfulfilled treaty promises, inadequate compensation for lost land and resources, and other specific claims. The evidence presented to the court of claims was primarily ethnographic and historical. It was designed to focus on tribal distribution, village locations, resource use and changes brought about through the treaty era.

Online schooling in India

Online Degrees

Whether you are planning to pursue a degree in business administration, criminal justice or any other subject of your choice, you can do so without stepping out of bedroom now! With the advent of online degrees, you can study from a traditional university or an online college that offer distance learning programs. You can learn about the several kinds of online degrees on our site.

Online India Education

With its plurality and paradoxes, India never ceases to fascinate. And education in India is only one among various other elements that have captured the attention of the world. While the United Nations is worried about the presence of a large number of illiterates, various other countries are amazed by the quality of some of the human resources that the Indian education system has produced. The growth of the Indian economy in the recent past and the compulsion to sustain it is also forcing the Indian government to accelerate the process of developing all the branches of the Indian education system. Therefore, it would be very interesting to understand and analyze the various structures of education in India, its present condition and future developments.

Online Schooling

Online schooling A growing number of teenagers are earning their high school diplomas through the internet. Distance learning is often a great option for students who need to stay home for health reasons, desire to work at their own pace, find themselves unable to concentrate on their work in the traditional setting, or need to schedule their learning around a career (such as acting). Finding an online high school can be a challenge; many schools make big claims but few live up to their promises. Parents generally have two options for their children: private online schools or public online schools. Private online schools function much like traditional private schools, while public schools must follow national and state regulations. Online Charter SchoolsIf your state allows charter schools, you may be able to enroll in an online high school for free. Charter schools are publicly funded but have more freedom from government control than regular public schools. This is one of the best deals out there, since public schools are not allowed to charge tuition and are generally accredited by the proper organization. States such as Minnesota and California have provisions in their state laws that permit students to enroll in charter programs that are paid for by the government. Schools Blue Sky in Minnesota offer students the chance to earn a diploma without paying for classes or materials. Choice2000 in California is completely online, completely free, and completely accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. Some schools even provide computer equipment and hands-on materials free of charge. Find a no-cost program in your area by searching the directory of online public charter schools.

Online Auto Insurance in India

Auto Insurance in India deals with the insurance covers for the loss or damage caused to the automobile or its parts due to natural and man-made calamities. It provides accident cover for individual owners of the vehicle while driving and also for passengers and third party legal liability. There are certain general insurance companies who also offer online insurance service for the vehicle.
Auto Insurance in India is a compulsory requirement for all new vehicles used whether for commercial or personal use. The insurance companies have tie-ups with leading automobile manufacturers. They offer their customers instant auto quotes. Auto premium is determined by a number of factors and the amount of premium increases with the rise in the price of the vehicle. The claims of the Auto Insurance in India can be accidental, theft claims or third party claims. Certain documents are required for claiming Auto Insurance in India , like duly signed claim form, RC copy of the vehicle, Driving license copy, FIR copy, Original estimate and policy copy.
There are different types of Auto Insurance in India :
Private Car Insurance – in the Auto Insurance in India, Private Car Insurance is the fastest growing sector as it is compulsory for all the new cars. The amount of premium depends on the make and value of the car, state where the car is registered and the year of manufacture.
Two Wheeler Insurance – the Two Wheeler Insurance under the Auto Insurance in India covers accidental insurance for the drivers of the vehicle. The amount of premium depends on the current showroom price multiplied by the depreciation rate fixed by the Tariff Advisory Committee at the time of the beginning of policy period.
Commercial Vehicle Insurance – Commercial Vehicle Insurance under the Auto Insurance in India provides cover for all the vehicles which are not used for personal purposes, like the Trucks and HMVs. The amount of premium depends on the showroom price of the vehicle at the commencement of the insurance period, make of the vehicle and the place of registration of the vehicle.

FINANCE

The field of finance refers to the concepts of time, money and risk and how they are interrelated. Banks are the main facilitators of funding through the provision of credit, although private equity, mutual funds, hedge funds, and other organizations have become important. Financial assets, known as investments, are financially managed with careful attention to financial risk management to control financial risk. Financial instruments allow many forms of securitized assets to be traded on securities exchanges such as stock exchanges, including debt such as bonds as well as equity in publicly-traded corporations.

Investment in Indian market

India, among the European investors, is believed to be a good investment despite political uncertainty, bureaucratic hassles, shortages of power and infrastructural deficiencies. India presents a vast potential for overseas investment and is actively encouraging the entrance of foreign players into the market. No company, of any size, aspiring to be a global player can, for long ignore this country which is expected to become one of the top three emerging economies.

AUTO INSURANCE IN INDIA

Auto Insurance in India deals with the insurance covers for the loss or damage caused to the automobile or its parts due to natural and man-made calamities. It provides accident cover for individual owners of the vehicle while driving and also for passengers and third party legal liability. There are certain general insurance companies who also offer online insurance service for the vehicle.
Auto Insurance in India is a compulsory requirement for all new vehicles used whether for commercial or personal use. The insurance companies have tie-ups with leading automobile manufacturers. They offer their customers instant auto quotes. Auto premium is determined by a number of factors and the amount of premium increases with the rise in the price of the vehicle. The claims of the Auto Insurance in India can be accidental, theft claims or third party claims. Certain documents are required for claiming Auto Insurance in India , like duly signed claim form, RC copy of the vehicle, Driving license copy, FIR copy, Original estimate and policy copy.

HISTORY OF INDIA

India's history and culture is ancient and dynamic, spanning back to the beginning of human civilization. Beginning with a mysterious culture along the Indus River and in farming communities in the southern lands of India. The history of india is one puncuated by constant integration with migrating peoples and with the diverse cultures that surround India. Placed in the center of Asia, history in india is a crossroads of cultures from China to Europe, and the most significant Asian connection with the cultures of Africa.India's history is more than just a set of unique developments in a definable process; it is, in many ways, a microcosm of human history itself, a diversity of cultures all impinging on a great people and being reforged into new, syncretic forms. IndHistory.com brings you the india's history starting from ancient history of india to modern indian history. Shown below is the india timeline starting from 3000 BC of ancient indus valley civilization and harappa civilization to 1000 AD of Chola Dynasty of ancient history of india.Indian History in Short :The History of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization in such sites as Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, and Lothal, and the coming of the Aryans. These two phases are usually described as the pre-Vedic and Vedic perio ds. It is in the Vedic period that Hinduism first arose: this is the time to which the Vedas are dated.In the fifth century, large parts of India were united under Ashoka. He also converted to Buddhism, and it is in his reign that Buddhism spread to o ther parts of Asia. It is in the reign of the Mauryas that Hinduism took the shape that fundamentally informs the religion down to the present day. Successor states were more fragmented.Islam first came to India in the eighth century, and by the 11th century had firmly established itself in India as a political force; the North Indian dynasties of the Lodhis, Tughlaqs, and numerous others, whose remains are visible in Delhi and scattered elsewhere around North India, were finally succeeded by the Mughal empire, under which India once again achieved a large measure of political unity.The European presence in India dates to the seventeenth century, and it is in the latter part of this century that the Mughal empire began to disintegrate, paving the way for regional states. In the contest for supremacy, the English emerged 'victors', their rule marked by the conquests at the battlefields of Plassey and Buxar.The Rebellion of 1857-58, which sought to restore Indian supremacy, was crushed; and with the subsequent crowning of Victoria as Empress of India, the incorporation of India into the empire was complete. Successive campaigns had the effect of driving the British out of India in 1947.

SAREE-most wonderful wearing

A sari or saree or shari is a female garment in the Indian subcontinent.[1] A sari is a strip of unstitched cloth, ranging from four to nine metres in length that is draped over the body in various styles. The most common style is for the sari to be wrapped around the waist, with one end then draped over the shoulder baring the midriff.[1] The sari is usually worn over a petticoat (pavada/pavadai in the south, and shaya in eastern India), with a blouse known as a choli or ravika forming the upper garment. The choli has short sleeves and a low neck and is usually cropped, and as such is particularly well-suited for wear in the sultry South Asian summers. Cholis may be "backless" or of a halter neck style. These are usually more dressy with a lot of embellishments such as mirrors or embroidery and may be worn on special occasions. Women in the armed forces, when wearing a sari uniform, don a half-sleeve shirt tucked in at the waist. The saree was born in both South and North India and is now a symbol of india.

HOW TO WEAR SAREE

The most common style is for the sari to be wrapped around the waist, with the loose end of the drape worn over the shoulder, baring the stomach.[1] However, the sari can be draped in several different styles, though some styles do require a sari of a particular length or form. The French cultural anthropologist and sari researcher, Chantal Boulanger, categorizes sari drapes in the following families:[8]
Nivi – styles originally worn in Andhra Pradesh; besides the modern nivi, there is also the kaccha nivi, where the pleats are passed through the legs and tucked into the waist at the back. This allows free movement while covering the legs.
Bengali and Oriya style.
Gujarati – this style differs from the nivi only in the manner that the loose end is handled: in this style, the loose end is draped over the right shoulder rather than the left, and is also draped back-to-front rather than the other way around.
Maharashtrian/kashta; This drape (front and back) is very similar to that of the male Maharashtrian dhoti. The center of the sari (held lengthwise) is placed at the center back, the ends are brought forward and tied securely, then the two ends are wrapped around the legs. When worn as a sari, an extra-long cloth is used and the ends are then passed up over the shoulders and the upper body. They are primarily worn by Brahmin women of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

Damayanthi in Sari by Raja Ravi Varma
Dravidian – sari drapes worn in Tamil Nadu; many feature a pinkosu, or pleated rosette, at the waist.
Madisaara style – This drape is typical of Brahmin ladies from Tamil Nadu and Kerala
Kodagu style – This drape is confined to ladies hailing from the Kodagu district of Karnataka. In this style, the pleats are created in the rear, instead of the front. The loose end of the sari is draped back-to-front over the right shoulder, and is pinned to the rest of the sari.
Gond – sari styles found in many parts of Central India. The cloth is first draped over the left shoulder, then arranged to cover the body.
the two-piece sari, or mundum neryathum, worn in Kerala. Usually made of unbleached cotton and decorated with gold or colored stripes and/or borders.
tribal styles – often secured by tying them firmly across the chest, covering the breasts.
The nivi style is today's most popular sari style. (Dongerkerry K. S. 1959).[9]
The nivi drape starts with one end of the sari tucked into the waistband of the petticoat. The cloth is wrapped around the lower body once, then hand-gathered into even pleats just below the navel. The pleats are also tucked into the waistband of the petticoat.[9] They create a graceful, decorative effect which poets have likened to the petals of a flower.[9]
After one more turn around the waist, the loose end is draped over the shoulder.[9] The loose end is called the pallu or pallav. It is draped diagonally in front of the torso. It is worn across the right hip to over the left shoulder, partly baring the midriff.[9] The navel can be revealed or concealed by the wearer by adjusting the pallu, depending on the social setting in which the sari is being worn. The long end of the pallu hanging from the back of the shoulder is often intricately decorated. The pallav may either be left hanging freely,tucked in at the waist, used to cover the head, or just used to cover the neck, by draping it across the right shoulder as well. Some nivi styles are worn with the pallu draped from the back towards the front.
The Nivi saree was popularised through the paintings of Raja Ravi Varma.[10] by modifying the south indian saree called mundum neriyathum. In one of his painting the Indian subcontinent was shown as a mother wearing a flowing nivi saree.[10]

INDIAN MUSIC INDUSTRY

The Indian music industry is the fifth largest consumer of music units in the world (181.1 million units), but due to rampant piracy and lack of deterrent punishment to pirates and other issues being faced by IMI, it lacks way behind at no 18 in the world in terms of music value (0.6% of world sales). The time is thus appropriate for Indian Music Industry (IMI) to fight its way back from several years of plummeting sales brought on by music piracy; high rate of taxes; online downloads and competing forms of entertainment such as FM Radio, Multiple Music Television Channels, Video Games and DVD's.
With IMI's anti piracy efforts, the law enforcement agencies of the country have been sensitised about the evils of piracy and the consumer is being made aware of the issues that the music companies are facing. “The next step is to take this battle against piracy to newer dimensions. A complete re-organisation of IMI's activities is being brought about that will reflect the present realities of the business. New initiatives in legal and enforcement actions are being aimed at enhancing the non-physical format revenues,” he said.
“The need of the hour is seeking strategic governmental intervention for the amendment of the Copyright Act as well as appeals for exemptions and relief's from levies. Towards this cause, introduction of a stringent licensing regime for the commercial use of music under Collective Administration and the active monetisation of revenues from existing and new streams will be the major thrust areas for the music Industry in its efforts for a turnaround,” he said.
The Indian Music Industry (IMI) is a consortium of over 50 music companies including several prominent regional and national labels such as SAREGAMA, Universal Music, Tips, Venus, BMG Crescendo, Sangeetha, Sony Music, Virgin, Aditya Music acting through their principal officers and representing over 75% of the output in legitimate recordings and a wide range of musical repertoire. IMI strives to protect the rights of phonogram producers and in the process promote the development of musical culture. the Indian music industry is the fifth largest consumer of music units in the world (181.1 million units), but due to rampant piracy and lack of deterrent punishment to pirates and other issues being faced by IMI, it lacks way behind at no 18 in the world in terms of music value (0.6% of world sales). The time is thus appropriate for Indian Music Industry (IMI) to fight its way back from several years of plummeting sales brought on by music piracy; high rate of taxes; online downloads and competing forms of entertainment such as FM Radio, Multiple Music Television Channels, Video Games and DVD's.
With IMI's anti piracy efforts, the law enforcement agencies of the country have been sensitised about the evils of piracy and the consumer is being made aware of the issues that the music companies are facing. “The next step is to take this battle against piracy to newer dimensions. A complete re-organisation of IMI's activities is being brought about that will reflect the present realities of the business. New initiatives in legal and enforcement actions are being aimed at enhancing the non-physical format revenues,” he said.
“The need of the hour is seeking strategic governmental intervention for the amendment of the Copyright Act as well as appeals for exemptions and relief's from levies. Towards this cause, introduction of a stringent licensing regime for the commercial use of music under Collective Administration and the active monetisation of revenues from existing and new streams will be the major thrust areas for the music Industry in its efforts for a turnaround,” he said.
The Indian Music Industry (IMI) is a consortium of over 50 music companies including several prominent regional and national labels such as SAREGAMA, Universal Music, Tips, Venus, BMG Crescendo, Sangeetha, Sony Music, Virgin, Aditya Music acting through their principal officers and representing over 75% of the output in legitimate recordings and a wide range of musical repertoire. IMI strives to protect the rights of phonogram producers and in the process promote the development of musical culture.
IMI represents the recording industry of India and is affiliated to IFPI the World Industry body having 1,450 members in 75 countries and Industry Organisations in 48 countries. While PPL is the exclusive Copyright Society engaged in the business of music licensing of the recording industry, with affiliates in 45 countries of the World.
IMI represents the recording industry of India and is affiliated to IFPI the World Industry body having 1,450 members in 75 countries and Industry Organisations in 48 countries. While PPL is the exclusive Copyright Society engaged in the business of music licensing of the recording industry, with affiliates in 45 countries of the World.

Indian Film

The Indian film industry is the largest in the world in terms of ticket sales and number of films produced annually (877 feature films and 1177 short films were released in the year 2003 alone).[1] India accounts for 73% of movie admissions in the Asia-Pacific region, and earnings are currently estimated at US$8.9 billion.[citation needed] The industry is mainly supported by the vast cinema-going Indian public. The Central Board of Film Certification of India cites on its website that every three months an audience as large as India's billion-strong population visits cinema halls.[2] Indian films are popular in various parts of the world, especially in countries with significant Indian communities.
Contents[hide]
1 The introduction of cinema in India
1.1 1896 - 1910
1.2 1910-1920s
1.3 1930s & 40s
2 Influences
3 Regional film industries
3.1 Assamese film industry
3.2 Bangla film Industry
3.3 Bhojpuri film industry
3.4 Hindi film industry (Bollywood)
3.5 Kannada film industry
3.6 Kashmiri film industry
3.7 Malayalam film industry
3.8 Marathi film industry
3.9 Oriya film industry
3.10 Tamil film industry
3.11 Telugu film industry
4 Art cinema in India
5 Globalization of Indian cinema
6 Awards
7 Film Training In India
8 Notes
9 References
10 See also
11 External links


The introduction of cinema in India
Hiralal Sen

Cinema was introduced to India on July 7, 1896. It began with the Lumiere Brothers' Cinematography, unveiling six silent short films at the Watson's Hotel in Mumbai, namely Entry of Cinematography, The Sea Bath, Arrival of a Train, A Demolition, Ladies & Soldiers on Wheels and Leaving the Factory[2]. The Times of India carried details of the "Living Photographic Pictures in Life-Size Reproductions by Lumiere Brothers". In the same year, the Madras Photographic Store advertised "animated photographs". Daily screenings of films commenced in Bombay in 1897 by Clifton and Co.'s Meadows Street Photography Studio.
In 1898, Hiralal Sen started to film scenes of theatrical productions at the Classic Theatre in Calcutta, inspired by Professor Stevenson (who had brought to India the first bioscope to show a film presentation alongside the stage production of The Flower Of Persia); his debut was a contribution to Stevenson's presentation. He continued making similar films to complement theatrical productions, which were shown as added attractions during intermission, in private screenings for high society households or taken to distant venues where the stage performers could not reach.

Lord and Lady Curzon on an elephant, Coronation Darbar in Delhi, 1903
Harischandra Sakharam Bhatavdekar alias Save Dada, who had attended the show, imported a cine-camera from London at a price of 21 guineas and filmed the first Indian documentary, a wrestling match at Hanging Gardens, Bombay in 1897. In 1901, he recorded the return from Cambridge of "Wrangler" Ragunath P. Paranjpe, who had secured a distinction in mathematics from Cambridge University, and M.M. Bhownuggree, considered the first Indian news film. [3][4]. He also filmed Lord Curzon (Viceroy of India)'s Delhi Durbar that marked the enthronement of Edward VII in 1903.
The commercial potential of cinema was also tested during the time. F.B. Thanewala's Grand Kinetoscope Newsreels is one successful case. J.F. Madan was another highly successful film producer, who released hit films like Bilwamangal; also, he launched Madan Theatres Ltd., India's largest film production-distribution-exhibition company and the biggest importer of American films after World War I. His films were marked by a high degree of technical sophistication, facilitated by his employment of experienced foreign directors like Eugenio De Liguoro and Camille Legrand. This expertise was complemented by grand sets and popular mythological storylines which ensured good returns.
Cinema houses were set up in major Indian cities in this period, like one in Madras (in 1900 by Major Warrick), the Novelty Cinema in Bombay (where newsreels from the Boer War were shown) and the Elphinstone Picture Palace in Calcutta (set up by J.F. Madan in 1907). Apart from these, a number of film shows were arranged in tents; examples are: shows arranged by two Italians, Colorello and Cornaglia, in tents at the Azad Maidan in Bombay, J.F. Madan's tent cinema at the Calcutta Maidan. Another popular mode of broadcasting films was the touring cinema. In 1904, Manek Sethna started the Touring Cinema Co. in Bombay and a year later, Swamikannu Vincent, a railway draughtsman, set up a touring cinema in South India. Pathe, the famous film production company set up an Indian office in 1907.

Slums in India

Western media headlines as usual are as follows – twenty five percent of Indians live on less than a dollar a day and seventy percent live on less than two dollars a day. The forgoing was the headline of May 9, 2005 in a major international newspaper. Others headlines are not any less mischievous. These are all meaningless analysis. It does not reflect that same amount of money has differing values in different places. A more acceptable and bit accurate description of incomes in countries is Purchase Power Parity (PPP), which is, pricing identical products and services as needed by the local population in different countries, thus establishing a new and a more equitable exchange rate. The foregoing is applicable mostly to tradable goods. The PPP will put India’s GDP at $3.7 Trillion. This will raise daily monies of twenty five percent of Indians at the lowest rung of the society to seven dollars. The latter is still low but is much higher than the Western media would like to project. The forgoing is not the point; the point is that poverty is a major shame in India’s otherwise decent, scientifically advanced, peace loving and at times turbulent image. Poverty creates slums and slums breed hopelessness and crime. Hence it needs to be tackled as an integral part of economic development.
The key question that arises - will the current hype in economical development in India alter the landscape for the very poor?
The answer is that, not much will change in next 20 to 25 years. The real impact will be felt later than twenty-five years. That is when 8% growth trajectory will take the PPP daily income of the very poor in India from seven dollars to forty dollars. By then, a $20 Trillion GDP economy (PPP basis) and $600 billion in exports (year 2001 basis) will add one hundred and fifty million jobs, of which forty to fifty million will go to the very poor segment of the society. This general prosperity will not only put food on the table but will add to better living, better housings etc. In the intervening period of 25 years, rising income levels will definitely add to the exodus from the slums to planned living areas. The forgoing also requires massive governmental effort to house people properly.
Let us examine this issue of poverty and slums in Indian cities and its relationship to

INDIA

India, officially the Republic of India is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of 7,517 kilometers (4,671 mi).[13] It is bordered by Pakistan to the west;[14] People's Republic of China (PRC), Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Indonesia in the Indian Ocean.
Home to the Indus Valley Civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[15] Four major world religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated there, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from the early eighteenth century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-nineteenth century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by widespread nonviolent resistance.
India is a republic consisting of 28 states and seven union territories with a parliamentary system of democracy. It has the world's twelfth largest economy at market exchange rates and the fourth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms since 1991 have transformed it into one of the fastest growing economies;[16] however, it still suffers from high levels of poverty,[17] illiteracy, and malnutrition. A pluralistic, multilingual, and multiethnic society, India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: भारत गणराज्य Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of 7,517 kilometers (4,671 mi).[13] It is bordered by Pakistan to the west;[14] People's Republic of China (PRC), Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Indonesia in the Indian Ocean.
Home to the Indus Valley Civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[15] Four major world religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated there, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from the early eighteenth century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-nineteenth century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by widespread nonviolent resistance.
India is a republic consisting of 28 states and seven union territories with a parliamentary system of democracy. It has the world's twelfth largest economy at market exchange rates and the fourth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms since 1991 have transformed it into one of the fastest growing economies;[16] however, it still suffers from high levels of poverty,[17] illiteracy, and malnutrition. A pluralistic, multilingual, and multiethnic society, India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.

Carnival of space

It's a Carnival of exoplanetary proportions! This week's Carnival of Space is hosted by Emily Lakdawalla at The Planetary Society. With the launch of Kepler there's lots of interesting posts about exoplanets, and lots of other great links, too. Check it out!

And if you're interested in looking back, here's an archive to all the past carnivals of space. If you've got a space-related blog, you should really join the carnival. Just email an entry to carnivalofspace@gmail.com, and the next host will link to it. It will help get awareness out there about your writing, help you meet others in the space community - and community is what blogging is all about. And if you really want to help out, let Fraser know if you can be a host, and he'll schedule you into the calendar.

Finally, if you run a space-related blog, please post a link to the Carnival of Space. Help us get the word out.

Moon

The Moon has fascinated mankind throughout the ages. By simply viewing with the naked eye, one can discern two major types of terrain: relatively bright highlands and darker plains. By the middle of the 17th century, Galileo and other early astronomers made telescopic observations, noting an almost endless overlapping of craters. It has also been known for more than a century that the Moon is less dense than the Earth. Although a certain amount of information was ascertained about the Moon before the space age, this new era has revealed many secrets barely imaginable before that time. Current knowledge of the Moon is greater than for any other solar system object except Earth. This lends to a greater understanding of geologic processes and further appreciation of the complexity of terrestrial planets.
On July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong became the first man to step onto the surface of the Moon. He was followed by Edwin Aldrin, both of the Apollo 11 mission. They and other moon walkers experienced the effects of no atmosphere. Radio communications were used because sound waves can only be heard by travelling through the medium of air. The lunar sky is always black because diffraction of light requires an atmosphere. The astronauts also experienced gravitational differences. The moon's gravity is one-sixth that of the Earth's; a man who weighs 180 lbf (pound-force) on Earth weighs only 30 lbf on the Moon. (The equivalent metric weight (or force) is the Newton, where 4.45 Newtons equal one pound-force.)
The Moon is 384,403 kilometers (238,857 miles) distant from the Earth. Its diameter is 3,476 kilometers (2,160 miles). Both the rotation of the Moon and its revolution around Earth takes 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 minutes. This synchronous rotation is caused by an unsymmetrical distribution of mass in the Moon, which has allowed Earth's gravity to keep one lunar hemisphere permanently turned toward Earth. Optical librations have been observed telescopically since the mid-17th century. Very small but real librations (maximum about 0°.04) are caused by the effect of the Sun's gravity and the eccentricity of Earth's orbit, perturbing the Moon's orbit and allowing cyclical preponderances of torque in both east-west and north-south directions.
Four nuclear powered seismic stations were installed during the Apollo project to collect seismic data about the interior of the Moon. There is only residual tectonic activity due to cooling and tidal forcing, but other moonquakes have been caused by meteor impacts and artificial means, such as deliberately crashing the Lunar Module into the moon. The results have shown the Moon to have a crust 60 kilometers (37 miles) thick at the center of the near side. If this crust is uniform over the Moon, it would constitute about 10% of the Moon's volume as compared to the less than 1% on Earth. The seismic determinations of a crust and mantle on the Moon indicate a layered planet with differentiation by igneous processes. There is no evidence for an iron-rich core unless it were a small one. Seismic information has influenced theories about the formation and evolution of the Moon.
The Moon was heavily bombarded early in its history, which caused many of the original rocks of the ancient crust to be thoroughly mixed, melted, buried, or obliterated. Meteoritic impacts brought a variety of "exotic" rocks to the Moon so that samples obtained from only 9 locations produced many different rock types for study. The impacts also exposed Moon rocks of great depth and distributed their fragments laterally away from their places of origin, making them more accessible. The underlying crust was also thinned and cracked, allowing molten basalt from the interior to reach the surface. Because the Moon has neither an atmosphere nor any water, the components in the soils do not weather chemically as they would on Earth. Rocks more than 4 billion years old still exist there, yielding information about the early history of the solar system that is unavailable on Earth. Geological activity on the Moon consists of occasional large impacts and the continued formation of the regolith. It is thus considered geologically dead. With such an active early history of bombardment and a relatively abrupt end of heavy impact activity, the Moon is considered fossilized in time.
The Apollo and Luna missions returned 382 kilograms (840 pounds) of rock and soil from which three major surface materials have been studied: the regolith, the maria, and the terrae. Micrometeorite bombardment has thoroughly pulverized the surface rocks into a fine-grained debris called the regolith. The regolith, or lunar soil, is unconsolidated mineral grains, rock fragments, and combinations of these which have been welded by impact-generated glass. It is found over the entire Moon, with the exception of steep crater and valley walls. It is 2 to 8 meters (7 to 26 feet) thick on the maria and may exceed 15 meters (49 feet) on the terrae, depending on how long the bedrock underneath it has been exposed to meteoritic bombardment.
The dark, relatively lightly cratered maria cover about 16% of the lunar surface and is concentrated on the nearside of the Moon, mostly within impact basins. This concentration may be explained by the fact that the Moon's center of mass is offset from its geometric center by about 2 kilometers (1.2 miles) in the direction of Earth, probably because the crust is thicker on the farside. It is possible, therefore, that basalt magmas rising from the interior reached the surface easily on the nearside, but encountered difficulty on the farside. Mare rocks are basalt and most date from 3.8 to 3.1 billion years. Some fragments in highland breccias date to 4.3 billion years and high resolution photographs suggest some mare flows actually embay young craters and may thus be as young as 1 billion years. The maria average only a few hundred meters in thickness but are so massive they frequently deformed the crust underneath them which created fault-like depressions and raised ridges.
The relatively bright, heavily cratered highlands are called terrae. The craters and basins in the highlands are formed by meteorite impact and are thus older than the maria, having accumulated more craters. The dominant rock type in this region contain high contents of plagioclase feldspar (a mineral rich in calcium and aluminum) and are a mixture of crustal fragments brecciated by meteorite impacts. Most terrae breccias are composed of still older breccia fragments. Other terrae samples are fine-grained crystalline rocks formed by shock melting due to the high pressures of an impact event. Nearly all of the highland breccias and impact melts formed about 4.0 to 3.8 billion years ago. The intense bombardment began 4.6 billion years ago, which is the estimated time of the Moon's origin.

Solar System

This article is about the Sun and its planetary system. For other systems, see planetary system. For multiple star systems, see star system. For specific orbital and physical data on the principal objects in the Solar System, such as the Sun, planets, dwarf planets and largest moons, see List of Solar System objects in hydrostatic equilibrium.
Planets and dwarf planets of the Solar System. Sizes are to scale, but relative distances from the Sun are not.
The Solar System[a] consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by gravity: the eight planets, their 166 known moons,[1] five dwarf planets, and billions of small bodies. The small bodies include asteroids, icy Kuiper belt objects, comets, meteoroids, and interplanetary dust.
The charted regions of the Solar System comprise the Sun, four terrestrial inner planets, the asteroid belt, four gas giant outer planets, and finally the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc. The hypothetical Oort cloud may also exist at a distance roughly a thousand times beyond these regions.
The solar wind, a flow of plasma from the Sun, permeates the Solar System, creating a bubble in the interstellar medium known as the heliosphere, which extends out to the middle of the scattered disc.

In order of their distances from the Sun, the eight planets are:

Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune

As of mid-2008, five smaller objects are classified as dwarf planets. Ceres is in the asteroid belt, and four orbit the Sun beyond Neptune: Pluto (formerly classified as the ninth planet), Haumea, Makemake, and Eris.
Six of the planets and three of the dwarf planets are orbited by natural satellites, usually termed "moons" after Earth's Moon. Each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other particles.

weather

Weather is a set of all the phenomena occurring in a given atmosphere at a given time.[1] Weather phenomena lie in the hydrosphere and troposphere.[2][3] Weather refers to current activity, as opposed to the term climate, which refers to the average atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time.[4] When used without qualification, "weather" is understood to be the weather of Earth.

Weather occurs due to density (temperature and moisture) differences between one place and another. These differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude from the tropics. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the

jet stream. Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year. On Earth's surface, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to −40 °F) annually. Over thousands to hundreds of thousands of years, changes in Earth's orbit affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth and influence long-term climate
Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes due to differences in compressional heating. Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. The atmosphere is a chaotic system, so small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole. Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout human history, and there is evidence that human activity such as agriculture and industry has inadvertently modified weather patterns.

Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth. A famous landmark in the Solar System, Jupiter's Great Red Spot, is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years. However, weather is not limited to planetary bodies. A star's corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System. The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind.

weather

Weather is a set of all the phenomena occurring in a given atmosphere at a given time.[1] Weather phenomena lie in the hydrosphere and troposphere.[2][3] Weather refers to current activity, as opposed to the term climate, which refers to the average atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time.[4] When used without qualification, "weather" is understood to be the weather of Earth.

Weather occurs due to density (temperature and moisture) differences between one place and another. These differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude from the tropics. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the jet stream. Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year. On Earth's surface, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to −40 °F) annually. Over thousands to hundreds of thousands of years, changes in Earth's orbit affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth and influence long-term climate
Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes due to differences in compressional heating. Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. The atmosphere is a chaotic system, so small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole. Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout human history, and there is evidence that human activity such as agriculture and industry has inadvertently modified weather patterns.
Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth. A famous landmark in the Solar System, Jupiter's Great Red Spot, is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years. However, weather is not limited to planetary bodies. A star's corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System. The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind.

Learn HTML

HTML, an initialism of HyperText Markup Language, is the predominant markup language for Web pages. It provides a means to describe the structure of text-based information in a document—by denoting certain text as links, headings, paragraphs, lists, and so on—and to supplement that text with interactive forms, embedded images, and other objects. HTML is written in the form of tags, surrounded by angle brackets. HTML can also describe, to some degree, the appearance and semantics of a document, and can include embedded scripting language code (such as JavaScript) which can affect the behavior of Web browsers and other HTML processors.

Origins

In 1980, physicist Tim Berners-Lee, who was an independent contractor at CERN, proposed and prototyped ENQUIRE, a system for CERN researchers to use and share documents. In 1989, Berners-Lee and CERN data systems engineer Robert Cailliau each submitted separate proposals for an Internet-based hypertext system providing similar functionality. The following year, they collaborated on a joint proposal, the WorldWideWeb (W3) project,[1] which was accepted by CERN.

[edit] First specifications
The first publicly available description of HTML was a document called HTML Tags, first mentioned on the Internet by Berners-Lee in late 1991.[2][3] It describes 22 elements comprising the initial, relatively simple design of HTML. Thirteen of these elements still exist in HTML 4.[4]
Berners-Lee considered HTML to be, at the time, an application of SGML, but it was not formally defined as such until the mid-1993 publication, by the IETF, of the first proposal for an HTML specification: Berners-Lee and Dan Connolly's "Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)" Internet-Draft, which included an SGML Document Type Definition to define the grammar.[5] The draft expired after six months, but was notable for its acknowledgment of the NCSA Mosaic browser's custom tag for embedding in-line images, reflecting the IETF's philosophy of basing standards on successful prototypes.[6] Similarly, Dave Raggett's competing Internet-Draft, "HTML+ (Hypertext Markup Format)", from late 1993, suggested standardizing already-implemented features like tables and fill-out forms.[7]
After the HTML and HTML+ drafts expired in early 1994, the IETF created an HTML Working Group, which in 1995 completed "HTML 2.0", the first HTML specification intended to be treated as a standard against which future implementations should be based.[6] Published as Request for Comments 1866, HTML 2.0 included ideas from the HTML and HTML+ drafts.[8] There was no "HTML 1.0"; the 2.0 designation was intended to distinguish the new edition from previous drafts.[9]
Further development under the auspices of the IETF was stalled by competing interests. Since 1996, the HTML specifications have been maintained, with input from commercial software vendors, by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).[10] However, in 2000, HTML also became an international standard (ISO/IEC 15445:2000). The last HTML specification published by the W3C is the HTML 4.01 Recommendation, published in late 1999. Its issues and errors were last acknowledged by errata published in 2001.

Cooking

The term "cooking" encompasses a vast range of methods, tools and combinations of ingredients to improve the flavor or digestibility of food. Cooking technique, known as culinary art, generally requires the selection, measurement and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure in an effort to achieve the desired result. Constraints on success include the variability of ingredients, ambient conditions, tools, and the skill of the individual cooking.[12] The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the myriad nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural and religious considerations that impact upon it.[13]
Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually, though not always, chemically transforms it, thus changing its flavor, texture, appearance, and nutritional properties.[14] Cooking proper, as opposed to roasting, requires the boiling of water in a container, and was practiced at least since the 10th millennium BC with the introduction of pottery.[15] There is archaeological evidence of roasted foodstuffs at Homo erectus campsites dating from 420,000 years ago.[16]

Food is any substance, usually composed of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and water, that can be eaten or drunk by an animal or human for nutrition or pleasure. Items considered food may be sourced from plants, animals or other categories such as fungus or fermented products like alcohol. Although many human cultures sought food items through hunting and gathering, today most cultures use farming, ranching, and fishing, with hunting, foraging and other methods of a local nature included but playing a minor role.

Most traditions have a recognizable cuisine, a specific set of cooking traditions, preferences, and practices, the study of which is known as gastronomy. Many cultures have diversified their foods by means of preparation, cooking methods and manufacturing. This also includes a complex food trade which helps the cultures to economically survive by-way-of food, not just by consumption.

Many cultures study the dietary analysis of food habits. While humans are omnivores, religion and social constructs such as morality often affect which foods they will consume. Food safety is also a concern with foodborne illness claiming many lives each year. In many languages, food is often used metaphorically or figuratively, as in "food for thought".

Birds (class Aves) are winged, bipedal, endothermic (warm-blooded), vertebrate animals that lay eggs. There are around 10,000 living species, making them the most numerous tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Birds range in size from the 5 cm (2 in) Bee Hummingbird to the 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in) Ostrich. The fossil record indicates that birds evolved from theropod dinosaurs during the Jurassic period, around 150–200 Ma (million years ago), and the earliest known bird is the Late Jurassic Archaeopteryx, c 155–150 Ma. Most paleontologists regard birds as the only clade of dinosaurs that survived the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event approximately 65.5 Ma.

Modern birds are characterised by feathers, a beak with no teeth, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a lightweight but strong skeleton. All birds have forelimbs modified as wings and most can fly, with some exceptions including ratites, penguins, and a number of diverse endemic island species. Birds also have unique digestive and respiratory systems that are highly adapted for flight. Some birds, especially corvids and parrots, are among the most intelligent animal species; a number of bird species have been observed manufacturing and using tools, and many social species exhibit cultural transmission of knowledge across generations.

Many species undertake long distance annual migrations, and many more perform shorter irregular movements. Birds are social; they communicate using visual signals and through calls and songs, and participate in social behaviours including cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators. The vast majority of bird species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years, but rarely for life. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous ("many females") or, rarely, polyandrous ("many males"). Eggs are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching.