The Indian Navy (Bhartiya Nāu Senā) is the naval branch of the armed forces of India. It currently has approximately 55,000 personnel on active duty, including 5,000 members of the naval aviation branch and 2,000 marine commandos, making it the world's fifth largest navy.The Indian Navy currently operates more than 155 vessels, including the INS Viraat, the only full-deck aircraft carrier operated by a country in Asia or the Western Pacific, along with operational jet fighters.
Though the primary objective of the navy is to secure national maritime borders, India also uses its navy to enhance its international relations through joint exercises, port visits and humanitarian missions, including disaster relief. In recent years, the Indian Navy has undergone extensive modernization and expansion with an intention to increase its capabilities as a recognized blue-water navy. By 2020, the Navy is expected to operate three aircraft carriers and three nuclear submarines.
Tuesday, April 28, 2009
Sunday, April 26, 2009
Indian Army
The Indian Army (Bharatiya Thalsena) is the largest branch of the armed forces of India and has the responsibility for land-based military operations. Its primary objectives include defending India from external aggression, maintaining peace and security within the country, patrolling borders and conducting counter-terrorist operations. It also conducts rescue and humanitarian operations during calamities and disturbances. The President of India is the Commander in Chief of the Indian Army.
With more than 1,130,000 soldiers in active service[1] and about 1,800,000 reserve troops, the Indian Army is the world's second largest.[2] It is a completely voluntary service and though there is a provision for military draft in the Indian constitution, it has never been imposed.
The Indian Army was formed soon after India gained independence in 1947 and retained most of the regiments of the British Indian Army. The Army is deployed in many of the world's conflict zones as a part of the United Nations Peacekeeping forces. The force is currently headed by the Chief of Army Staff, General Deepak Kapoor. The Field Marshal is the highest attainable rank in the Indian Army and it is awarded by the President of India, on advise of the Union Government, only in exceptional circumstances. So far, only two officers have attained this rank.
With more than 1,130,000 soldiers in active service[1] and about 1,800,000 reserve troops, the Indian Army is the world's second largest.[2] It is a completely voluntary service and though there is a provision for military draft in the Indian constitution, it has never been imposed.
The Indian Army was formed soon after India gained independence in 1947 and retained most of the regiments of the British Indian Army. The Army is deployed in many of the world's conflict zones as a part of the United Nations Peacekeeping forces. The force is currently headed by the Chief of Army Staff, General Deepak Kapoor. The Field Marshal is the highest attainable rank in the Indian Army and it is awarded by the President of India, on advise of the Union Government, only in exceptional circumstances. So far, only two officers have attained this rank.
Friday, April 24, 2009
Indian Airlines
Indian Airlines is an airline based in Delhi, India and focuses primarily on domestic routes, along with several international services to neighbouring countries in Asia. Indian Airlines is state-owned, and is administered by the Ministry of Civil Aviation. Its main bases are Delhi's Indira Gandhi International Airport, Mumbai's Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, Chennai International Airport and Kolkata's Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport[1].
Though the company that owns and operates the airline continues to be named Indian Airlines Limited, on 7 December 2005, the airline was rebranded as Indian for advertising purposes as a part of a program to revamp its image in preparation for an initial public offering (IPO).[2] The airline operates closely with Air India, India's national carrier. Alliance Air, a fully-owned subsidiary of Indian Airlines, was renamed Air India Regional.[3]
In February 2007, the Government of India approved plans to merge Indian Airlines with Air India. The merger process is currently underway.
Services
Indian serves its customers through inbound call centres based at Delhi and outbound call centers at major metropolitan areas. Accessible through a toll free number from all parts of the country, arrival-departure information, reservations, promotional schemes, telephone check-in and booking (Dial-a-Ticket) are a few of the services rendered to fliers and travel agents.
Though the company that owns and operates the airline continues to be named Indian Airlines Limited, on 7 December 2005, the airline was rebranded as Indian for advertising purposes as a part of a program to revamp its image in preparation for an initial public offering (IPO).[2] The airline operates closely with Air India, India's national carrier. Alliance Air, a fully-owned subsidiary of Indian Airlines, was renamed Air India Regional.[3]
In February 2007, the Government of India approved plans to merge Indian Airlines with Air India. The merger process is currently underway.
Services
Indian serves its customers through inbound call centres based at Delhi and outbound call centers at major metropolitan areas. Accessible through a toll free number from all parts of the country, arrival-departure information, reservations, promotional schemes, telephone check-in and booking (Dial-a-Ticket) are a few of the services rendered to fliers and travel agents.
Indian Railway
Indian Railways, abbreviated as IR, is the state-owned railway company of India, which owns and operates most of the country's rail transport. It is overseen by the Ministry of Railways of the Government of India.
Indian Railways has one of the largest and busiest rail networks in the world, transporting over 18 million passengers and more than 2 million tonnes of freight daily.[3][4] It is the world's largest commercial or utility employer, with more than 1.4 million employees.[5][3] The railways traverse the length and breadth of the country, covering 6,909 stations over a total route length of more than 63,327 kilometres (39,350 mi). As to rolling stock, IR owns over 200,000 (freight) wagons, 50,000 coaches and 8,000 locomotives.[3]
Railways were first introduced to India in 1853. By 1947, the year of India's independence, there were forty-two rail systems. In 1951 the systems were nationalised as one unit, becoming one of the largest networks in the world. IR operates both long distance and suburban rail systems on a multi-gauge network of broad, metre and narrow gauges. It also owns locomotive and coach production facilities.
Indian Railways has one of the largest and busiest rail networks in the world, transporting over 18 million passengers and more than 2 million tonnes of freight daily.[3][4] It is the world's largest commercial or utility employer, with more than 1.4 million employees.[5][3] The railways traverse the length and breadth of the country, covering 6,909 stations over a total route length of more than 63,327 kilometres (39,350 mi). As to rolling stock, IR owns over 200,000 (freight) wagons, 50,000 coaches and 8,000 locomotives.[3]
Railways were first introduced to India in 1853. By 1947, the year of India's independence, there were forty-two rail systems. In 1951 the systems were nationalised as one unit, becoming one of the largest networks in the world. IR operates both long distance and suburban rail systems on a multi-gauge network of broad, metre and narrow gauges. It also owns locomotive and coach production facilities.
Wednesday, April 15, 2009
Marriage in India
Arranged marriages have been the tradition in Indian society for centuries. Even today an overwhelming majority of Indians in India have their marriages planned by their parents and other respected family-members, without the consent of the bride and groom [1]. Arranged matches were made after taking into account factors such as age, height, personal values and tastes, the backgrounds of their families (wealth, social standing) and their castes and the astrological compatibility of the couples' horoscopes.The institution of marriage in India is considered a very important one. In general both the parents and the young people feel that since they were older and wiser than their progeny, they would be able to find a suitable match for their children with more prudence than the latter. Although most marriages are arranged, some couples in India are opting for love marriage in urban areas. Among the overseas Indians, many marriages are still arranged with the assistance of the parents[2]. Even the so called love marriages in India generally happen with the approval of the parents, although their blessing may sometimes be reluctant.
In India, the marriage is thought to be for life[3], and the divorce rate is extremely low, 1.1 compared with over 20% for USA. Still, many women and men are beat or emotionally hurt, but stay together for social standings[4]. The arranged marriages generally have a much lower divorce rate[citation needed]. The divorce rates have risen significantly in recent years:
"Opinion is divided over what the phenomenon means: for traditionalists the rising numbers portend the breakdown of society while, for some modernists, they speak of a healthy new empowerment for women."[5]
Monday, April 13, 2009
Indian food
Food, glorious food...The way to a man's heart is through his stomach...An army marches on its stomach....and so many other cliches that all centre around one of life's necessities - eating. Without exception we aim to ensnure you into a truly unique, unforgettable cuisine experience. We combine the ancient with the modern and take you down the path to losing yourself in the exotic flavours of INDIA.
Non Vegetarian Food
The non-vegetarian side of Indian cuisines comprises of many juicy, tender, mouth watering delicacies made with eggs, chicken, fish and more....
Vegetarian Food
Vegetables are an integral part of our food and we consume them in a number of ways. For pure vegetarians India is a heaven. Some of the famous recepies are Navratan Korma, Shahi Paneer and more....
Indian Breads
In India, bread is eaten more in the northern regions of the country because of its dry climate.There are a variety of breads consumed in India like roomali roti, naan , aloo paratha and more....
Tandoori Chicken
There are only three secrets to cooking good Tandoori meats, including chicken. The first is the use of the special clay Tandoor oven, which not many people have in their homes. The second is the special Tandoori coloring, a rich red color imparted to the meat. But for me, the third secret
is the most important to learn is the special yogurt marinade used to flavor the meat. Here are the ingredients and method to create delicious Tandoori Chicken at home
For the Tandoor oven, we can substitute
the barbeque grill or the oven. For the
coloring, you may be able to find special
Tandoori food coloring at a local Indian
grocery store or online. Or you can try
substituting a combination of red and
orange/yellow food coloring until you get
the color you want. Many Tandoori
recipes call for meat tenderizer but I omit
this. I was never able to control its use;
most of the time it would over tenderize
and make the surface (only) of the
chicken mushy. Its omission has no
downside in my opinion since if you cook
the chicken correctly it will be very
tender. There is no substitute for the
marinade which is described below….
Ingredients:
The Chicken:
3-4 pounds (approx) chicken pieces, bone-in. Alternatively, use boneless skinless chicken
breasts cubed for kabobs
For the marinade:
¼ cup fresh lemon juice
2 large fresh garlic cloves, peeled and chopped fine
1 tablespoon fresh ginger root, peeled and chopped fine
1 teaspoon ground cumin
½ teaspoon ground cardamom
½ teaspoon ground red chili pepper
1 teaspoon tandoori coloring, or substitute paprika
1/3 cup plain yogurt
Combine well all the ingredients for the marinade and let stand for a few minutes for the
flavors to combine. Be careful with the food coloring since it can stain your fingers.
Remove the skin from the chicken pieces. For a traditional Indian look, slash each piece 2
4 times with a knife to create just ¼ to ½ inch deep slashes. This will give a traditional look plus
allow the marinade to contact more of the chicken.
Add the chicken to the marinade and coat all the pieces. You need to let the chicken
marinate for at least a couple of hours in the refrigerator. It’s ok to let it marinate all day or
overnight. Be sure to stir the chicken a couple of times during this time.
After just a couple of hours, the chicken is ready to cook. You can use a regular oven to
roast the chicken in a 350 degree oven for 35-45 minutes or until it is just cooked through. It is
very important not to overcook chicken because it gets dry and tough very soon after it is cooked
through. Alternatively, you can grill this chicken on a barbeque grill, basting once or twice with a
light cooking oil like canola oil.
All cooking times are estimations because your oven and barbeque may be much hotter or colder than mine. Please take care to cook the chicken thoroughly, but not so much as to dry it
out.
If by chance (not likely!) you do not finish all your Tandoori Chicken you can use the
leftovers in a Butter Chicken recipe.
Enjoy!
Thursday, April 2, 2009
Indian Wars
Indian Wars
Since the first encounters, Indian-white relations have been largely characterized by hostility and violence, causing the term "Indian wars" to gain wide currency. The Indian Wars were a result of a clash of cultures that led to many short, bloody battles. There were rare stories of unprovoked American Indian attacks on innocent families that brought about outrage by the rest of the country. These violent acts led to the United States military retaliating against the tribe responsible.
"There is not a tribe of Indians on the Great plains or in the Mountains...but which is warring on the whites. The first demand of the Indian is that the white man shall not come into his country: shall not kill or drive off the game upon which his subsistence depends: and shall not disposses him of his lands." The mass migration of Euro-Americans into the west was monitored by soldiers who prevented squatters from encroaching upon American Indian land. As the overlanders were migrating west they cut a path that divided the great buffalo herds of the Plains. The buffalo was the life source for the Plains Indians and their hunting of these animals became disrupted. The tribes may have been helpful initially to the overlanders but hospitable feelings turned to resentment as their way of life began to decline.
The government began establishing treaties with the American Indians and giving them rations of food, clothing and farm implements to allow the pioneers to continue to pass through their territory. At first the tribes were cooperative. In the Pacific Northwest the military was called in to provide a buffer between the settlers and the American Indians. By the 1860s, mounting pressure sparked battles on the Plains. The sentiment of many whites was stated by Philip Sheridan when he said that, "The only good Indian is a dead Indian."
The American Indians' land was taken from them, they were forced to live on reservations and they did not have the manpower to fight back. Many reservations were on worthless land. They could not farm or raise stock on much of the land. Most devastating for their culture was the lack of hunting on the reservations.
By the time of the Civil War, the flow of emigrants slowed, but revived afterward with the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869. As American Indians were forced to live on reservations, the need for soldiers dwindled, and slowly the forts closed.
By the late 1860'S the government's policy of removing Indians from desirable areas (graphically represented by the transfer of the Five Civilized Tribes from the Southeast to Oklahoma—the Cherokees called it the "Trail of Tears") had run its course and was succeeded by one of concentrating them on reservations. The practice of locating tribes in other than native or salubrious surroundings and of joining uncongenial bands led to more than one Indian war. Some bands found it convenient to accept reservation status and government rations during the winter months, returning to the warpath and hunting trail in the milder seasons. Many bands of many tribes refused to accept the treaties offered by a peace commission and resisted the government's attempt to confine them to specific geographical limits; it fell to the Army to force compliance. In his area, General Sheridan now planned to hit the Indians in their permanent winter camps.
While a winter campaign presented serious logistical problems, it offered opportunities for decisive results. If the Indians' shelter, food, and livestock could be destroyed or captured, not only the warriors but their women and children were at the mercy of the Army and the elements, and there was little left but surrender. Here was the technique of total war, a practice that raised certain moral questions for many officers and men that were never satisfactorily resolved.
The Indian Wars of the 1870's-1890's saw the Army involved in a long series of engagements. These wars often consisted of numerous scattered skirmishes over wide areas, without any substantial battle being fought to determine the war's end. This type of war led to the further enhancement of the Noncommissioned Officer's [NCO's] role as small unit leader. Often fighting in small detachments, troops relied heavily on the knowledge and abilities of NCOs.
The Army during the Indian wars was habitually unable to balance resources with requirements, both because of limited manpower and because of the continental size of the theater of operations. As Lt. Gen. William T. Sherman, commanding the Division of the Missouri, put it, "Were I or the department commanders to send guards to every point where they are clamored for, we would need alone on the plains a hundred thousand men, mostly of cavalry. Each spot of every road, and each little settlement along five thousand miles of frontier, wants its regiment of cavalry or infantry to protect it against the combined power of all the Indians, because of the bare possibility of their being attacked by the combined force of all the Indians."
During the Indian Wars period, enlisted men lived in Spartan barracks, with corporals and privates in one large room. Sergeants were separated from their men, in small cubicles of their own adjacent to the men's sleeping quarters. This gave enlisted men a sense of comradeship, but allowed little privacy.
Black soldiers of this period were often referred to as Buffalo Soldiers. The units they served in were the 9th and 10th Cavalry and the 24th and 25th Infantry. These troops provided 20 years of continuous frontier service. They campaigned in the Southern Plains, in West Texas, in the Apache lands, and against the Sioux.
The soldier of this period spent much of his time engaged in manual labor. Soldiers in the west were called upon to build or repair housing and fortifications, repair roads and bridges, serve as blacksmiths or bakers, perform guard duty, and other tasks. It was a hard life, pay was poor, and desertion was common. NCOs were fully tested in their abilities to maintain effective fighting units.
During the 1870's the Army discouraged enlisted men from marrying. Regulations limited the number of married enlisted men in the Army and required special permission to be obtained if a man in the Army wished to marry. Those men who did marry without permission could be charged with insubordination. They could not live in post housing or receive other entitlements. Still, nature proved stronger than Army desires or regulations. Marriages occurred and posts were transformed into communities.
Married NCO wives had a hard life, often working as laundresses or maids. Their meals consisted of beans, bacon, beef and hardtack, with eggs, sugar and other staples being too high-priced for their budgets. Many lived in dugouts, sod huts or adobe buildings. The luckier wives lived in wooden structures or stone buildings.
The earliest settlements of westward expansion were the forts. They were centers of trade and commerce and brought growth, stability, and trade. The soldiers helped to build roads and later string telegraph lines.
A soldier's life was not glamorous, perhaps a fact learned too late after men enlisted. Some men romanticized the life while others wished to escape from a lackluster career or an unhappy home life. Other soldiers came to the West from the Civil War battlefields. Many were recent European immigrants,and after the Civil War, former slaves. A soldier's life would entail wearing wool uniforms and living in crowded, unsanitary barracks. Often the men had only beef, beans, stew, or bacon to eat. They averaged around $13.00 per month in wages.
In Canada the Royal Mounted Police (established in 1874) were empowered to treat with the Indians--and then back the treaties against the encroachments of settlers. As a result Canada did not suffer the Indian wars that plagued her southern neighbor. While the several thousand soldiers of the US Army struggled to preserve peace on the American frontier, no more than 300 Northwest Mounties were sufficient to do the same in Canada's West, even after the settlers came.
The end of the 1800s brought tremendous change to the Indian Nations within the United States. It marked the end of the Indian wars and the beginning of the Reservation period in American history. A large number of culturally diverse tribes from the various regions of the United States were relocated to "Indian Territory." This region was to become the state of Oklahoma. This large concentration of Indian populations within Oklahoma made the state one of the main centers for growth and development of American Indian arts and crafts. Historically, the Southwest and California were also regions that had equally large populations of Indian people. Today these three areas are the leaders in the promotion and appreciation of Native art.
The late 1930s and early 1940s marked a change in direction in Indian education. Two official special art programs, one at the University of Oklahoma and one at the Santa Fe Indian School were developed to encourage and nurture the growth of Indian painting as well as the traditional arts. Out of these programs, the leaders in the Native American Fine Art Movement emerged. The late 1930s and early 1940s also saw a growing interest by collectors and promoters of Indian art in the small wood carvings being produced by Native artists.
The Indian Claims Commission was established in 1946 to settle any outstanding claims any Native American tribe might have against the federal government. Claims for unfulfilled treaty promises, inadequate compensation for lost land and resources, and other specific claims. The evidence presented to the court of claims was primarily ethnographic and historical. It was designed to focus on tribal distribution, village locations, resource use and changes brought about through the treaty era.
Since the first encounters, Indian-white relations have been largely characterized by hostility and violence, causing the term "Indian wars" to gain wide currency. The Indian Wars were a result of a clash of cultures that led to many short, bloody battles. There were rare stories of unprovoked American Indian attacks on innocent families that brought about outrage by the rest of the country. These violent acts led to the United States military retaliating against the tribe responsible.
"There is not a tribe of Indians on the Great plains or in the Mountains...but which is warring on the whites. The first demand of the Indian is that the white man shall not come into his country: shall not kill or drive off the game upon which his subsistence depends: and shall not disposses him of his lands." The mass migration of Euro-Americans into the west was monitored by soldiers who prevented squatters from encroaching upon American Indian land. As the overlanders were migrating west they cut a path that divided the great buffalo herds of the Plains. The buffalo was the life source for the Plains Indians and their hunting of these animals became disrupted. The tribes may have been helpful initially to the overlanders but hospitable feelings turned to resentment as their way of life began to decline.
The government began establishing treaties with the American Indians and giving them rations of food, clothing and farm implements to allow the pioneers to continue to pass through their territory. At first the tribes were cooperative. In the Pacific Northwest the military was called in to provide a buffer between the settlers and the American Indians. By the 1860s, mounting pressure sparked battles on the Plains. The sentiment of many whites was stated by Philip Sheridan when he said that, "The only good Indian is a dead Indian."
The American Indians' land was taken from them, they were forced to live on reservations and they did not have the manpower to fight back. Many reservations were on worthless land. They could not farm or raise stock on much of the land. Most devastating for their culture was the lack of hunting on the reservations.
By the time of the Civil War, the flow of emigrants slowed, but revived afterward with the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869. As American Indians were forced to live on reservations, the need for soldiers dwindled, and slowly the forts closed.
By the late 1860'S the government's policy of removing Indians from desirable areas (graphically represented by the transfer of the Five Civilized Tribes from the Southeast to Oklahoma—the Cherokees called it the "Trail of Tears") had run its course and was succeeded by one of concentrating them on reservations. The practice of locating tribes in other than native or salubrious surroundings and of joining uncongenial bands led to more than one Indian war. Some bands found it convenient to accept reservation status and government rations during the winter months, returning to the warpath and hunting trail in the milder seasons. Many bands of many tribes refused to accept the treaties offered by a peace commission and resisted the government's attempt to confine them to specific geographical limits; it fell to the Army to force compliance. In his area, General Sheridan now planned to hit the Indians in their permanent winter camps.
While a winter campaign presented serious logistical problems, it offered opportunities for decisive results. If the Indians' shelter, food, and livestock could be destroyed or captured, not only the warriors but their women and children were at the mercy of the Army and the elements, and there was little left but surrender. Here was the technique of total war, a practice that raised certain moral questions for many officers and men that were never satisfactorily resolved.
The Indian Wars of the 1870's-1890's saw the Army involved in a long series of engagements. These wars often consisted of numerous scattered skirmishes over wide areas, without any substantial battle being fought to determine the war's end. This type of war led to the further enhancement of the Noncommissioned Officer's [NCO's] role as small unit leader. Often fighting in small detachments, troops relied heavily on the knowledge and abilities of NCOs.
The Army during the Indian wars was habitually unable to balance resources with requirements, both because of limited manpower and because of the continental size of the theater of operations. As Lt. Gen. William T. Sherman, commanding the Division of the Missouri, put it, "Were I or the department commanders to send guards to every point where they are clamored for, we would need alone on the plains a hundred thousand men, mostly of cavalry. Each spot of every road, and each little settlement along five thousand miles of frontier, wants its regiment of cavalry or infantry to protect it against the combined power of all the Indians, because of the bare possibility of their being attacked by the combined force of all the Indians."
During the Indian Wars period, enlisted men lived in Spartan barracks, with corporals and privates in one large room. Sergeants were separated from their men, in small cubicles of their own adjacent to the men's sleeping quarters. This gave enlisted men a sense of comradeship, but allowed little privacy.
Black soldiers of this period were often referred to as Buffalo Soldiers. The units they served in were the 9th and 10th Cavalry and the 24th and 25th Infantry. These troops provided 20 years of continuous frontier service. They campaigned in the Southern Plains, in West Texas, in the Apache lands, and against the Sioux.
The soldier of this period spent much of his time engaged in manual labor. Soldiers in the west were called upon to build or repair housing and fortifications, repair roads and bridges, serve as blacksmiths or bakers, perform guard duty, and other tasks. It was a hard life, pay was poor, and desertion was common. NCOs were fully tested in their abilities to maintain effective fighting units.
During the 1870's the Army discouraged enlisted men from marrying. Regulations limited the number of married enlisted men in the Army and required special permission to be obtained if a man in the Army wished to marry. Those men who did marry without permission could be charged with insubordination. They could not live in post housing or receive other entitlements. Still, nature proved stronger than Army desires or regulations. Marriages occurred and posts were transformed into communities.
Married NCO wives had a hard life, often working as laundresses or maids. Their meals consisted of beans, bacon, beef and hardtack, with eggs, sugar and other staples being too high-priced for their budgets. Many lived in dugouts, sod huts or adobe buildings. The luckier wives lived in wooden structures or stone buildings.
The earliest settlements of westward expansion were the forts. They were centers of trade and commerce and brought growth, stability, and trade. The soldiers helped to build roads and later string telegraph lines.
A soldier's life was not glamorous, perhaps a fact learned too late after men enlisted. Some men romanticized the life while others wished to escape from a lackluster career or an unhappy home life. Other soldiers came to the West from the Civil War battlefields. Many were recent European immigrants,and after the Civil War, former slaves. A soldier's life would entail wearing wool uniforms and living in crowded, unsanitary barracks. Often the men had only beef, beans, stew, or bacon to eat. They averaged around $13.00 per month in wages.
In Canada the Royal Mounted Police (established in 1874) were empowered to treat with the Indians--and then back the treaties against the encroachments of settlers. As a result Canada did not suffer the Indian wars that plagued her southern neighbor. While the several thousand soldiers of the US Army struggled to preserve peace on the American frontier, no more than 300 Northwest Mounties were sufficient to do the same in Canada's West, even after the settlers came.
The end of the 1800s brought tremendous change to the Indian Nations within the United States. It marked the end of the Indian wars and the beginning of the Reservation period in American history. A large number of culturally diverse tribes from the various regions of the United States were relocated to "Indian Territory." This region was to become the state of Oklahoma. This large concentration of Indian populations within Oklahoma made the state one of the main centers for growth and development of American Indian arts and crafts. Historically, the Southwest and California were also regions that had equally large populations of Indian people. Today these three areas are the leaders in the promotion and appreciation of Native art.
The late 1930s and early 1940s marked a change in direction in Indian education. Two official special art programs, one at the University of Oklahoma and one at the Santa Fe Indian School were developed to encourage and nurture the growth of Indian painting as well as the traditional arts. Out of these programs, the leaders in the Native American Fine Art Movement emerged. The late 1930s and early 1940s also saw a growing interest by collectors and promoters of Indian art in the small wood carvings being produced by Native artists.
The Indian Claims Commission was established in 1946 to settle any outstanding claims any Native American tribe might have against the federal government. Claims for unfulfilled treaty promises, inadequate compensation for lost land and resources, and other specific claims. The evidence presented to the court of claims was primarily ethnographic and historical. It was designed to focus on tribal distribution, village locations, resource use and changes brought about through the treaty era.
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